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The results are very similar to those for the first population sample and are in line with Hypothesis 2. Globally, the gender pay gap stands at 16 per cent, meaning women workers earn an average of 84 per cent of what men earn. Zeitschrift fr Soziologie 38, 350357. More information on the analysis of the gender pay gap can be found in the publication: The gender wage gap in Canada: 1998 to 2018. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. A first version of this paper was presented at the Conference of the American Sociological Association in 2011 in Las Vegas (Regular Session: How Do Organizations Bring Markets Back In? Am. The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. The just earnings depend on the levels of characteristics observers perceive as important. Berger, J., Zelditch, M., Anderson, B., and Cohen, B. Models 5 and 6 show the coefficients for population sample 2. In this population, it is less likely that gender has status value and therefore is not a relevant characteristic within the justice evaluation process. (1972), judgements based on comparisons between two individuals are not justice evaluations (e.g., both individuals could be underpaid). The justice of earnings in dual-earner households. I thank Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, and Murray Webster Jr. as well as Guillermina Jasso and the two reviewers for critical comments and helpful suggestions. Correlations of vignette dimensions for the population sample 2. ^D-efficient designs (Kuhfeld, 2005) are built using a computer algorithm that specifies a sample characterized by a minimal intercorrelation between dimensions (main effects and interaction terms) while also ensuring a maximal variance and balance of the frequency of the dimensions levels. The effects of vocational and university degrees are also significantly negative. The gap exists as a universal between the genders, and it exists within the vast majority of occupations. Thus. This paper investigates the determinants of the gender pay gap among doctoral graduates in Germany. doi: 10.2307/2787012, Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1999). College Station, TX: Stata Press. (2019, April 10). CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. As one can tell the two sides of the matter are whether or not women deserve the pay. (1972), and Jasso and Rossi (1977). Example of a vignette with a rating scale used in population sample 1 and the student sample. In sum, age, education, occupation, and the associated earnings provided information on the recipients that all respondents used in their justice evaluation. Surv. Sociol. The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. doi: 10.1177/0003122416683393. Finally, the influence of gender inequality on justice evaluations was tested via regional pay gaps in Table 8. If men are more likely to be resource-rich and women are more likely to be resource-poor, observers attach higher status to male recipients and assign higher earnings to the high-status group even though the recipients do not differ in other characteristics. How Expectations Organize Behavior, eds J. Berger and M. J. Zelditch (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), 215261. (2008). Therefore, not only data on justice perceptions but also information on the interactions of men and women in the workplace and organizations and on the inequality and power structures would be useful. (2015)], especially in the case of justice evaluations of earnings (Gatskova, 2013; Auspurg et al., 2017). WebGender pay gap The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. The equity principle states that relative equivalence of two actors' ratios of inputs and outputs ensures perceptions of equity or justice in the eyes of the beholders. As factorial survey studies go beyond standard questionnaires, the requirement in the computer-assisted personal interviewing version was to use experienced interviewers. Am. (OECD). Thus, male and female students did not account for gender similarly in their justice evaluations as it would be the case when it was a status characteristic for both groups. 84, 541564. One study was conducted with social sciences students, and two used population samples of German inhabitants. HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Conflicttheoryasserts that social problems occur whendominant. (1977). DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities (Bielefeld University). Thus, it is possible to investigate justice evaluations of people embedded in differing gender inequality structures. Women learned from their mothers to be subservient to their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons and men learned from their mothers and fathers that their wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters must be subservient to them. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in 45, 168193. The observers produce in this case no just gender pay gap. Note that the data from population sample 1 were used for the analysis published in Auspurg et al. Copyright 2020 Sauer. Am. This was due to womens dependence on men for the attainment of wages. What do you see as some of the pros and cons of placing a child with ADHD on medication? When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group Fairness judgments of the distribution of earnings. Non-reflexive judgments, on the other hand, are not affected by conflicts of justice perceptions and individuals' own interests because people judge rewards by which they are not affected (especially when people evaluate fictitious others, as is the case in factorial survey studies). 15 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi-gdp-entgelt-2019-06-11-01.pdf, https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2691510, https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen, Germany. Reward-relevant characteristics are those that entitle someone to receive a certain amount of rewards. In the student sample, the effect of gender on the justice evaluation is insignificant, which indicates that minor importance is attached to this dimension. Gender pay gap 20062018, in WSI GenderDatenPortal. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. doi: 10.2307/2095066, Jasso, G. (1986). The effect of average gross earnings is significantly negative, meaning that respondents living in federal states with high average earnings evaluated the gross earnings described in the vignettes more often as unjustly low compared to those respondents living in federal states with lower average earnings. (1972), the vignette dimensions are the characteristics of the recipient, and the gross earnings are the goal object. doi: 10.1177/001979390606000103. The actual gender pay gap captures the differences in earnings between men and women. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. I 've only covered a few of the issues that it creates, and there are many more. Just. The gender wage gap is a measure of what women are paid relative to men. Experimental plans in factorial surveys: random or quota design? It has been evident that women head the top-performing organizations in the world. Methods for empirical justice analysis: part 1. We have this belief as a society that men are better than women. Moreover, the student sample used in this study revealed no gender differences in study success (meanm = 1.26; meanf = 1.15; T = 1.27; p = 0.20; nm = 697;nf = 998) measured via self-assessment on an eleven-point rating scale (5 to +5). Therefor, they will recruit enough women so no one can claim gender discrimination, but in the end, male is their preference. There exist large regional differences in gender pay gaps across federal states. The Conflict Perspective by Boundless, Boundless Sociology, http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/index.html is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. (2009, 2014). But this wasnt due to women earning more. ^The data on the average earnings of full-time employees are provided by the Federal Employment Agency (Frank and Grimm, 2010, p. 14). This possibility was introduced in the description of the vignette task immediately before the first vignette. WebConflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. How impartial are the observers of justice theory? Following justice evaluation theory, in justice evaluation processes, people compare actual rewards to rewards perceived as just or fair (Jasso, 1978, 1980, 1986)1. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. Kevin J. Mitchell, Ph.D., "Sex on the Brain" published by Aeon Magazine, https://aeon.co/essays/the-gender-wars-will-end-only-with-a-synthesis-of-research, 10. The theory of double standards focuses on these interactions between job-related characteristics, such as competence and performance, and gender (Foschi, 2000); empirical research by Jasso and Webster (1999) shows that these double standards exist in justice evaluations. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). (2009). Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2, Adriaans, J, Sauer, C., and Wrohlich, K. (2020). However, future research could directly test the effects of daily interactions in the workplace or within an organization, as they are important for the emergence and spread of status beliefs and for justice evaluation processes. Given the assumption that the process can be defined as a gender bias in the referential structure, it is likely that one will find gender gaps in just earnings in evaluators judgments who are themselves embedded in gender-unequal structures, while it is likely that people who experience less gender inequality do not have these biased structures. proletariat the working class or lower class, dominant group a sociological category that holds the majority of authority and power over other social groups. Rev. Therefore, the findings presented above could reflect age or cohort as well as education effects. 26, 2142. doi: 10.1006/ssre.1996.0010, Gatskova, K. (2013). 1.) Our history has shown that men want to be in control of everything. The result is in line with previous research (Jasso and Webster, 1999) that also found only marginal differences in the ratings of male and female students. This paper only focuses on five dimensions that were included in all studies5. To investigate how structural differences shape justice perceptions, the following analyses focus on the two population samples. Rev. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. Soc. *Correspondence: Carsten Sauer, carsten.sauer@zu.de, View all The problem is described in greater detail in Sauer et al. The left extreme point (5) was labeled unjustly low, the midpoint (0) was labeled just and the right extreme point (+5) was labeled unjustly high. The midpoint was coded as zero, the left segment as negative numbers, and the right segment as positive numbers. Further notes on the theory of distributive justice. Methods effects in factorial surveys: an analysis of respondents' comments, interviewers' assessments, and response behavior. The first model only considers respondents under the age of thirty; the second model restricts the analysis sample to respondents with a higher secondary school degree. The feminist and conflict theory apply to the gender wage gap by the feminist stating that men and women should have equal rights. Evidence on the gender pay gap from multifactorial survey experiments. Beliefs about inequality and perceptions of distributive justice. Making regression tables simplified. Since 2002, the sample size has been approximately 1,000 respondents and considered representative of the German resident population 16 years of age and older (Siegel et al., 2009). The third model shows the coefficients of the three-way interaction with respondent's gender for male (2 = 6.17;p = 0.013) and female (2 = 3.60;p = 0.058) respondents separately. Double standards for competence: theory and research. Positive values indicate a gap favoring male vignette persons and negative values indicate a gap favoring female vignette persons. In the years 2008 and 2009, when the surveys of this study were conducted, the unadjusted gender pay gap of monthly median earnings in Germany was approximately 21% (see Table 5). The findings suggest that municipalities with women mayors and larger proportions of women on the city council have smaller gender wage gaps in the municipal executive bureaucracy than those with men mayors and few women councilors. Want to create or adapt books like this? doi: 10.2307/2095506. Table 3. Res. Previous studies in sociological justice research have found mixed results on the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings. Usually, the official statistics reporting the unadjusted gender pay gap use the arithmetic mean or the median of hourly or monthly wages of men and women. Model 1 shows that the effect of respondents' gender on the justice evaluations is significantly negative, meaning that male students evaluated, on average, the vignettes as more unjustly low than female students. New York, NY: Elsevier Scientific. First, respondents had to judge whether the earnings of a worker were just or unjust. J. Sociol. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. According to the respondents, the vignette persons who have a higher level of formal education should gain higher returns from their work (educational reward). For example, recently, it has become increasingly important to individually negotiate at least parts of one's earnings or other gratifications. 52, 862873. Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. The empirical analyses, therefore, draw on a sample of social sciences students and two population samples. 12, 251274. doi: 10.1177/0049124105283121. Just gender pay gap in percent (with 95% CIs) by sample and respondents' gender. Stata: Release 12. 45, 332. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. The gender gap in negotiation may in part explain why women in the United States earned only about 83% of mens median annual earnings in 2021, according to the Institute for Womens Policy Research. On the other hand, if gender has no status value in the eyes of the observer, it is not a relevant factor for the justice evaluation. I use data from one student sample and two random samples of the German population (the two population samples are independent of one another and differ in design and are therefore useful to demonstrate the robustness of the findings). Table 6. The interaction coefficient between the gender of the vignette person and the gender of the respondent in Model 2 indicates whether there were differences in rating behavior between men and women. - Argument in Support of Social Constructionism, 11. The actuality is that our society wants to gender inequality. The gender pay gaps per federal state are provided by the Statistical Office of Rhineland-Palatinate (Schomaker, 2010a,b). Equation (6) includes the vignette dimensions, the structural context (the actual gender pay gap (GPG) and the average earnings per federal state), and the cross-level interaction between the vignette person's gender (genderv) and the gender pay gap in the federal state (GPGfed.state). Additionally, both female and male respondents in the population samples are assumed to have similar status beliefs about gender. As well as looking at basic differences in pay, the research identifies the characteristics that explain those differences such as age, occupation and level of education. Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. Soc. Justice processes: specifying the mediating role of perceptions of distributive justice. Social sciences students are an example of a more gender-equal subpopulation. In the terminology of Berger et al. Health Econ. Illogical cases are, e.g., medical doctors without a university degree. Development of theory History Berger, J., Fisek, H. M., Norman, R. Z., and Wagner, D. G. (1985). Is Gender Socially Constructed? Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 6, 440447. While fighting over control of these resources, these groups and individuals develop their own interests. Res. The vignettes of this study consisted of fictitious employees working full time (40 h per week). Formation of reward expectations in status situations, in Status, Rewards and Influence. The status value theory of distributive justice (Berger et al., 1972) and the justice evaluation theory (Jasso, 1978) highlight the importance of comparison processes within distributive justice judgements that rely on referential structures. Here's What Women Make Compared to However, reflexive justice judgments are based on individuals' own outcomes and are therefore driven by two forces, justice deliberations and self-interest (Younts and Mueller, 2001). The actual rewards (gross earnings) are directly given, while the just gross earnings are a hypothetical value observers regard as just for given recipients. Both raw and adjusted gender wage gap estimates are highly dispersed in our sample, with values ranging from almost nil to as much as 95% of men wages. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2015). This means that people compare the rewards of specific people (either themselves in reflexive judgments or others in non-reflexive judgments) to a generalized other that represents a typical other for the specific comparison, e.g., a car mechanic or a teacher at a public school. The respondents were randomly assigned to experimental splits. Labor Relat. doi: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.007, Hobler, D., and Pfahl, S. (2019). Front. Discovering the mechanisms behind why people perceive certain income levels to be appropriate or fair for male and female employees sheds light on these processes. Research shows that it is difficult to directly measure gender stereotypes due to social desirability bias and unconscious gender biases that people are unable to express directly. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. WebSince women are starkly overrepresented in low paid work, it would usually benefit women more dramatically. Isserstedt, W., Middendorff, E., Kandulla, M., Borchert, L., and Leszczensky, M. (2010). This can be written in a formal equation as follows: The term C in Equation (1) is now replaced by characteristics that might be relevant for the justice evaluation, including gender. Table 5. We see this take place in many area, however we witness it more in the work place., The theoretical perspective that explains the issue of gender wage gap inequality is the conflict theory. In the negotiation literature, it can be seen that a systematic gender bias is inherent (Dittrich et al., 2014; Kugler et al., 2018), partly because both negotiation parties likely exhibit a double standard for men and women. In population sample 2, a constant number of dimensions (10) and vignettes (24) was presented. Compared to white, non-Hispanic men, the pay gap for Black women was 38% and 46% for Latinas. Am. 50, 822839. Norwegian Institute for Social Research (ISF), Norway, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, United States. Therefore, research on this transformation process using survey experiments would be especially useful. London, UK: Sage Publications. A new theory of distributive justice. Status hierarchies are in this case not correlated with gender. (1997). 26, 132150. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. If gender has status value in the eyes of the observer, it will be relevant in the justice evaluation process. The adjusted gender pay gap (under the control of human capital factors and occupation) was approximately 8% (Finke et al., 2017) and remained also relatively stable over the last decade. These characteristics can be achieved, such as performance, or ascribed, such as gender (Berger et al., 1977). The interaction effect in Model 4 is insignificant, meaning that male and female respondents both produced to the same extent a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients in their evaluations. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in This research has limitations. While the reported gap differs slightly depending on the measure used, the overall pattern is very similar. In these negotiations it is on the one hand important for employees to formulate claims that yield an appropriate outcome, and on the other hand, supervisors have to evaluate these claims as legitimate. Die wahrgenommene gerechtigkeit des eigenen erwerbseinkommens: Geschlechtstypische muster und die bedeutung des haushaltskontextes. Die Bewertung von Erwerbseinkommen Methodische und inhaltliche Analysen zu einer Vignettenstudie im Rahmen des SOEP-Pretest 2008. It would be not explainable enough for women to reject such help. Sipe, S., Johnson, C. D., and Fisher, D. K. (2009). Sexism and misogyny will steadily disappear with this quota firmly in place, as it looks to, equalize the power discrepancy between men and women (Kittay 1999, 12). The effect is significantly negative, meaning that the larger the gender pay gap in the federal state was, the larger the gender pay gap produced by respondents' ratings. Moreover, the study examines how human capital Under the structural condition of gender inequality, it is likely that gender has status value. 51, 3046. Factorial Survey Experiments, Vol. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. There are two main differences between the pretest and the SOEP main survey. A. M., Kaschner, T., and Brodbeck, F. C. (2018). (2017) with a different approach and focus. WebThe unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. This reflects differing referential structures with higher referential earnings of observers from high-income federal states. Jann, B. The reason is that in a population with gender inequalities, it is likely that gender has status value and is therefore relevant in the justice evaluation process. Full-time employees directly experience inequalities in their goal-oriented daily interactions at their workplaces. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Acta Sociol. Annu. Moreover, the respondents could skip vignettes if they did not want to answer. WebIntro ( 0:55) To talk about why we have gender in the first place we need to go back to the three theories that sociology is built on: Structural-Functional Theory, Symbolic Interaction Theory, and Social Conflict Theory. The second column of Table 5 shows the pay gaps by federal state. WebThis research report explores the gender pay gap, which is defined as the difference between the average hourly pay of men and women. To learn about the content of these factors, theories that provide substantive predictions are useful. 60, 6678. Factorial survey methods for studying beliefs and judgments. This is underlined by studies that investigate students transition to labor markets and their underestimation of gender discrimination in the workplace (Sipe et al., 2009). Toward a multilevel distributive justice theory. ^The theory is based on the research of Adams (1965), Homans (1974), Berger et al. 34, 334423. The three surveys were developed and conducted in collaboration with Katrin Auspurg, Thomas Hinz, and Stefan Liebig. Moreover, the findings can be useful for inequality research, as justice attitudes reinforce actual inequalities. The interaction effect is significantly negative, meaning that the rating behavior of male and female students differed with respect to the gender of the vignette person. As is standard in the gender wage gap literature on transition countries, adjusted gender wage gaps are greater than raw gaps. Median monthly earnings and pay gaps by federal state in 2009. The third model in Table 6 provides the coefficients for population sample 2. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. WebThe gender wage gap in America is a social problem that has existed since women entered the workforce. Because the assumption of uncorrelated error terms is violated and standard ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models would be biased (Cameron and Trivedi, 2009), the data were analyzed via multi-level regressions using a generalized least squares (GLS) estimator8. Jasso, G. (2007). Methods Res. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. KEY POINTS Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. ^The combination of these factors addresses interactions between gender and other characteristics, e.g., experience or education.